Shamil Basayev- the leader of Chechen terrorist group. Organized several major terrorist attacks since 1995, including Beslan School Hostage Crisis. He was murdered in 2006.
Budennovsk hospital hostage crisis- Hostage crisis in city Budennovsk in North Caucasus. Took place from 14 June to 19 June in 1995. It was first major terrorist attack in Russia, organized by Shamil Basayev. Resulted in loss of 129 lives.
Siloviki- politicians from the security or military services, often the officers of the KGB, the FSB, the Federal Narcotics Control Service and military or other security services who came into power. It can also refer to security-service personnel from any country or nationality.
Dedovshchina- the name given to the informal system of subjection of new junior conscripts, formerly to the Soviet Armed Forces and today to the Russian armed forces.
Dedovshchina involves a spectrum of subordinating or humiliating activities performed by the junior ranks. It is often cited as a major source of poor morale in the ranks.
Blat- term which appeared in the Soviet Union to denote the use of informal agreements, exchangements of services, connections, Party contacts, or black market deals to achieve results or get ahead. Accordingly, blatnoy means a man who obtains a job or gets into a university using connections, or sometimes bribes. The system of blat led to formation of social networks similar to Good ol' boy network, Old boy network, or Guanxi. In the Soviet republics, blatnoys were very much in demand as it was difficult to gain a post or enroll in some prestigious majors in universities without proper connections.
United Russia (party)- Centrist party in Russia. The ruling political party in the Russian Federation. United Russia nominated President Dmitry Medvedev, and is currently the largest political party in the Russian Federation. On April 15, 2008, Vladimir Putin accepted the nomination to become chairman of the party.
Tuesday, May 4, 2010
Interest Group IDs
Possibly unimportant group of terms, it was assigned reading but I wouldn't worry too much about them:
statist- the soviet state sponsored and controlled interest groups. WHY IMPORTANT: declined during glasnost in the 1990s, giving the state less control over the civic institutions.
pluralism- multiple groups competed for members and influence. WHY IMPORTANT: 1990s, the prevailing pattern of interest articulation, which allowed for groups to have more influence over their government.
corporatism- the state funds certain groups while ignoring or repressing others. WHY IMPORTANT: Putin moved Russia towards corporatism, increasing the control of the terms of the relationships between interest groups and policy makers.
Russian Union of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs (RUIE)- big business interest group. It is a collection of old state industrial firms and newer financial-industrial conglomerates headed by oligarchs. WHY IMPORTANT: While the most powerful interest group in Russia, the RUIE speaks with a much meeker voice since Putin's stand against oligarchs during the 'Yukos Affair', which the RUIE did not try to stop. The state speaks with a louder voice than any interest group.
Federation of Independent Trade Unions in Russia (FITUR)- largest trade union in Russia. A far cry from an effective voice for workers, the FITUR is quite concerned how their actions will be viewed by the Kremlin, who it clears planned activities and messages with ahead of time. It also has withheld layoff numbers because of concerns about the company's stock prices. WHY IMPORTANT: There is not a strong labor interest group in Russia.
Russian Orthodox Church- largest religion in Russia. The church sees the state and church interlocked. Membership is a tribute not of just free will, but of nationality. WHY IMPORTANT: It successfully obtained legislation that denied equality to competing religious organizations.
statist- the soviet state sponsored and controlled interest groups. WHY IMPORTANT: declined during glasnost in the 1990s, giving the state less control over the civic institutions.
pluralism- multiple groups competed for members and influence. WHY IMPORTANT: 1990s, the prevailing pattern of interest articulation, which allowed for groups to have more influence over their government.
corporatism- the state funds certain groups while ignoring or repressing others. WHY IMPORTANT: Putin moved Russia towards corporatism, increasing the control of the terms of the relationships between interest groups and policy makers.
Russian Union of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs (RUIE)- big business interest group. It is a collection of old state industrial firms and newer financial-industrial conglomerates headed by oligarchs. WHY IMPORTANT: While the most powerful interest group in Russia, the RUIE speaks with a much meeker voice since Putin's stand against oligarchs during the 'Yukos Affair', which the RUIE did not try to stop. The state speaks with a louder voice than any interest group.
Federation of Independent Trade Unions in Russia (FITUR)- largest trade union in Russia. A far cry from an effective voice for workers, the FITUR is quite concerned how their actions will be viewed by the Kremlin, who it clears planned activities and messages with ahead of time. It also has withheld layoff numbers because of concerns about the company's stock prices. WHY IMPORTANT: There is not a strong labor interest group in Russia.
Russian Orthodox Church- largest religion in Russia. The church sees the state and church interlocked. Membership is a tribute not of just free will, but of nationality. WHY IMPORTANT: It successfully obtained legislation that denied equality to competing religious organizations.
Novogo, Russia: (I am not sure if I spelled "Novogo" right, but it is close). It is a small village in Russia. Importance: The Soviet hardliners met in this village to plan the August 1991 coup against Gorbachav.
March 3, 1990: Article 6 of the Soviet Constitution was amended. This constitutional change ended the Communist Party's political monopoly in Russia. It allowed other political parties to form and compete in elections.
Tatyana and Naina Yeltsin(a?): Tatyana is Yeltsin's daughter and Naina is Yeltsin's wife. Importance: They became important political advocates during Yeltsin's time and president and were widely seen as corrupt. This suspicion appeared to be substantiated when Yeltsin requested and received a general pardon for corruption for his entire family when Putin became president.
Grozny: The capital city of the Russia province, Chechnya. Grozny was a stronghold for separatists and terrorists who were determined to become independent from Russia. It was a major theatre in Russia's wars against Chechnya and the focus of some group's human rights complaints.
March 3, 1990: Article 6 of the Soviet Constitution was amended. This constitutional change ended the Communist Party's political monopoly in Russia. It allowed other political parties to form and compete in elections.
Tatyana and Naina Yeltsin(a?): Tatyana is Yeltsin's daughter and Naina is Yeltsin's wife. Importance: They became important political advocates during Yeltsin's time and president and were widely seen as corrupt. This suspicion appeared to be substantiated when Yeltsin requested and received a general pardon for corruption for his entire family when Putin became president.
Grozny: The capital city of the Russia province, Chechnya. Grozny was a stronghold for separatists and terrorists who were determined to become independent from Russia. It was a major theatre in Russia's wars against Chechnya and the focus of some group's human rights complaints.
Monday, May 3, 2010
IDs- sorry if there's duplicates
Commonwealth of Independent States: The loose structure of 11 former soviet republics formed under Yeltsin. Were made using bilateral agreements between Moscow and the states, thus allowing Russia to reassert its influence over many of the former USSR states.
Vladimir Zhirinovsky: led the Liberal Democratic Party which won 24% of the votes in the 1993 parliament elections. Was an embarrassment to Russia because the party was semi-fascist, violent, and anti-Semitic.
Yegor Gaidar: was the man put in charge of economic reforms for Russia who instituted the shock therapy method of rapid liberalization and privatization.
Our Home is Russia Party (NDR): the political party set up by Yeltsin's people to compete in parliamentary elections. Was a convergence of government and party functions because the party was semi-governmental and partially funded by tax payers.
Group of Seven (G-7): the coalition of seven bankers that funded Yeltsin's 1996 presidential campaign; were an essential element in getting Yeltsin reelected.
Decree 1400: a presidential decree from Sep 1993 that dissolved parliament and introduced presidential rule.
October 11, 1994/ Black Tuesday: the day the Russian currency collapsed by about 25%. wiped out savings
Omar Al Khattab: he was part of the Taliban, leader of the Chechen rebels, and Putin's biggest threat.
Vladimir Zhirinovsky: led the Liberal Democratic Party which won 24% of the votes in the 1993 parliament elections. Was an embarrassment to Russia because the party was semi-fascist, violent, and anti-Semitic.
Yegor Gaidar: was the man put in charge of economic reforms for Russia who instituted the shock therapy method of rapid liberalization and privatization.
Our Home is Russia Party (NDR): the political party set up by Yeltsin's people to compete in parliamentary elections. Was a convergence of government and party functions because the party was semi-governmental and partially funded by tax payers.
Group of Seven (G-7): the coalition of seven bankers that funded Yeltsin's 1996 presidential campaign; were an essential element in getting Yeltsin reelected.
Decree 1400: a presidential decree from Sep 1993 that dissolved parliament and introduced presidential rule.
October 11, 1994/ Black Tuesday: the day the Russian currency collapsed by about 25%. wiped out savings
Omar Al Khattab: he was part of the Taliban, leader of the Chechen rebels, and Putin's biggest threat.
Some ID's from Notes
Leninism - In regards to the general public, part of Leninism was the belief that Lenin was holy, pure, and infallible. Significance: During Gorbachev's reforms, people used Leninism to protest reforms and call for a return to Lenin's ideology.
Nina Andreyeva (Andreeva) - Chemistry professor and Stalinist. Significance: Protested Gorbachev's reforms, and openly questioned his commitment to communism in a newspaper article.
Peristroika: Reforms implemented by Gorbachev to bring about a restructuring of soviet political and economical practices. Significance: Seen by many as a catalyst to the downfall of the Soviet Union.
Article 6 of the Soviet Constitution: States that the Communist Party is the leading party, and ultimately holds all power in the government of the Soviet Union.
August 19, 1991 - The Coup of 1991 begins. Significance: In response to the reforms made by Gorbachev, "hardliners" in the Communist party stage a coup to overthrow him; Yeltsin assumes a leadership role and announces that this is a coup and that the military should not take part.
August 21, 1991 - Gorbachev reinstated to power, investigation of coup begins. Significance: Though the coup proved unsuccessful, it showed a clear schism in the government and Soviet Union in general.
December 24 - 26, 1991 - Soviet Union ceases to exist. Significance: Marks the official end of the Soviet Union.
Komsomol: Communist Youth Organization. Significance: During Gorbachev's reforms, rebels pushed for even further change.
March 13, 1990: Article 6 of the old Constitution amended. Significance: Removed Communist party's monopoly and increased the power of the President. Also, more parties pop up.
Nationalism - Rather than a pride in one's country, this nationalism is used in a negative manner and refers to extreme nationalist behaviour, or exclusion of peoples. Significance: Problem after Article 6 was amended as the Communist party kept nationalism under control.
Nina Andreyeva (Andreeva) - Chemistry professor and Stalinist. Significance: Protested Gorbachev's reforms, and openly questioned his commitment to communism in a newspaper article.
Peristroika: Reforms implemented by Gorbachev to bring about a restructuring of soviet political and economical practices. Significance: Seen by many as a catalyst to the downfall of the Soviet Union.
Article 6 of the Soviet Constitution: States that the Communist Party is the leading party, and ultimately holds all power in the government of the Soviet Union.
August 19, 1991 - The Coup of 1991 begins. Significance: In response to the reforms made by Gorbachev, "hardliners" in the Communist party stage a coup to overthrow him; Yeltsin assumes a leadership role and announces that this is a coup and that the military should not take part.
August 21, 1991 - Gorbachev reinstated to power, investigation of coup begins. Significance: Though the coup proved unsuccessful, it showed a clear schism in the government and Soviet Union in general.
December 24 - 26, 1991 - Soviet Union ceases to exist. Significance: Marks the official end of the Soviet Union.
Komsomol: Communist Youth Organization. Significance: During Gorbachev's reforms, rebels pushed for even further change.
March 13, 1990: Article 6 of the old Constitution amended. Significance: Removed Communist party's monopoly and increased the power of the President. Also, more parties pop up.
Nationalism - Rather than a pride in one's country, this nationalism is used in a negative manner and refers to extreme nationalist behaviour, or exclusion of peoples. Significance: Problem after Article 6 was amended as the Communist party kept nationalism under control.
Sunday, May 2, 2010
ID's from Satter's "Darkness at Dawn"
AUGUST 12, 2000 – Russian naval exercises end with an accident aboard the Kurst (the Russian's most prized submarine, which led to the sinking of the Kurst. The Russian military had no rescue divers or other rescue units and did not ask for help from foreign countries, and in fact, refused help from the United States, Great Britain, and Norway. AUGUST 16, 2000 – President Clinton calls Putin (who was on vacation during the entire ordeal) and Putin orders naval officials to accept foreign help. AUGUST 19, 2000 – Norwegian government arrives with rescue divers and other rescue efforts. Sub found to be flooded. All sailors on board the submarine had died. SIGNIFICANCE: Showed the discrepancies of Russian military technology. Led to the people's opinion that the Russian military was more worried about saving military secrets than saving the lives of their sailors. Putin learned not to stay on vacation when there was an ongoing tragedy.
SEPTEMBER 22, 1999 – Bomb scare in Ryazan apartment building. Building evacuated and bomb found in the basement. Those involved work for FSB (Federal Security Service). FSB claims it was only a training exercise, but not widely believed. SIGNIFICANCE: Furthered the people's suspicion of the government. Also interesting to note that three days after the broadcast of the FSB's televised “question and answer” meeting, Putin (former head of the FSB) was elected President, and it is said that corrupt elites in the government needed “another war capable of propelling Putin into the presidency in order to save their corrupt wealth”
PRIVATIZATION: The transfer of state owned assets to private individuals through auctions, vouchers, and loans. “Unofficial privatization occurred before the official privitization period which included government officials taking over and privatizing organizations and agencies, while collecting the profits. SIGNIFICANCE: Did not really increase the wealth of the general population, as much of the assets,especially the most important ones ended up in the hands of select individuals, businessmen, and nomenklatura (elite group within the ruling class and other important positions.), which only led to further corruption within the government.
DECEMBER 31, 1999 – Resignation of Boris Yeltsin, Putin appointed as acting President. SIGNIFICANCE: First peaceful handover of power in Russian history.
JANUARY 2, 1992 – Hyperinflation begins in the Russian economy, as prices are supposed to increase on 3-5x and then fall, but actually increase by 25-30x. SIGNIFICANCE: Increased the “wealth gap” in Russian society, as the general populations loses all savings, and the elite used it to create a profit for themselves. Increases criminal activity in Russia.
AUGUST 1998 – Economic crash – Government devalued currency, defaulted on treasury bills, announced moratorium on commercial debt repayment. SIGNIFICANCE: Among other things, the economic crisis caused Yeltsin's approval rating to fall to the low single digits, paving the way for Putin.
MARCH 26, 2000 – Russian Presidential elections: Putin elected President. SIGNIFICANCE: No major change made to fight against corruption, and corruption continues.
Travis Pfannenstiel's IDs
Atomize - To isolate someone from other influences in order to control them. Terror atomizes people. This is important because it was used greatly by Stalin to control people.
Stakonovich Movement - Stakonovich was a coal miner who was glorified for his ability to mine coal fast. He became a hero of the working class. He is important because he became the figure of much of Stalin's propaganda.
Kirov Affair - Kirov was a Politburo member who was assassinated (most likely by Stalin). This is important because Stalin used Kirov's assassination to justify the purges of 1934.
Yazov, Krychkov, and Genady Yanayev - Yazov was Gorbachev's Minister of Defense, Krychkov was Gorbachev's KGB chief, and Yanayev was Vice President for Gorbachev. They are important because they were the plotters of the coup against Gorbachev.
Andrei Sakharov - Political prisoner who was freed by Gorbachev during glasnost. He became a politician and supported the removal of Article 6 from the Constitution. He is important because he became a leader of the Duma and opposition to Gorbachev.
Ygor Gaidar, Anotoly Chubais, Grigory Yavlinsky - All were members of Yeltsin's Young Reformers. They are important because the implemented the economic "Shock Therapy."
Chernomydrin - He was the prime minister from 1993 - 1997. He is important because he was used by Yeltsin to take the fall for failed economic policy.
Alexander Rutskoi - He was the vice president to Yeltsin. He is important because he later became an opponent of Yeltsin and led the opposition that barricaded itself in the White House in 1993.
Gennady Zyuganov - He is the leader of the modern Communist Party of Russia
Kiriyenko and Primakov - They were the short-lived prime ministers following the dismissal of Chernomydrin.
Aleksandr Lebed - He was the general who brought peace during the first Chechen War. He is important because he later became one of Yeltsin's opponents who challenged him for the presidency in 1996.
General Dzhokhar Dudayev - He was the leader of the Chechen independence movement.
Cleptocracy - A cleptocracy is a government run by thiefs and criminals who rule by bribery, murder, and pillage. It is important because many modern critics of Russian government officials use this word to describe the current situation in Russia.
Stakonovich Movement - Stakonovich was a coal miner who was glorified for his ability to mine coal fast. He became a hero of the working class. He is important because he became the figure of much of Stalin's propaganda.
Kirov Affair - Kirov was a Politburo member who was assassinated (most likely by Stalin). This is important because Stalin used Kirov's assassination to justify the purges of 1934.
Yazov, Krychkov, and Genady Yanayev - Yazov was Gorbachev's Minister of Defense, Krychkov was Gorbachev's KGB chief, and Yanayev was Vice President for Gorbachev. They are important because they were the plotters of the coup against Gorbachev.
Andrei Sakharov - Political prisoner who was freed by Gorbachev during glasnost. He became a politician and supported the removal of Article 6 from the Constitution. He is important because he became a leader of the Duma and opposition to Gorbachev.
Ygor Gaidar, Anotoly Chubais, Grigory Yavlinsky - All were members of Yeltsin's Young Reformers. They are important because the implemented the economic "Shock Therapy."
Chernomydrin - He was the prime minister from 1993 - 1997. He is important because he was used by Yeltsin to take the fall for failed economic policy.
Alexander Rutskoi - He was the vice president to Yeltsin. He is important because he later became an opponent of Yeltsin and led the opposition that barricaded itself in the White House in 1993.
Gennady Zyuganov - He is the leader of the modern Communist Party of Russia
Kiriyenko and Primakov - They were the short-lived prime ministers following the dismissal of Chernomydrin.
Aleksandr Lebed - He was the general who brought peace during the first Chechen War. He is important because he later became one of Yeltsin's opponents who challenged him for the presidency in 1996.
General Dzhokhar Dudayev - He was the leader of the Chechen independence movement.
Cleptocracy - A cleptocracy is a government run by thiefs and criminals who rule by bribery, murder, and pillage. It is important because many modern critics of Russian government officials use this word to describe the current situation in Russia.
IDs-From Zoe and Thomas
Federal Assembly- Russian parliament made up of the Federation Council (upper house) and the State Duma (lower house). WHY IMPORTANT: The Federal Assembly has been declining in power, to the point one might say it is a rubber stamp for the president, who uses it as a way to garner legal legitimacy which presidential decrees may lack. (Remington p.69)
Federation Council- Upper House of the Federal Assembly of Russia made up 2 members from every unit of the federation. It approves presidential high court nominees, legislates taxes, budget, treaties, and declarations of war. WHY IMPORTANT- The Federation Council was at odds occasionally with Yeltsin, but Putin changed the way the were elected (one from the region's chief executive and one from the region's legislature). Now the Council is politically controlled by the Kremlin. (Remington p.71) (COULD USE ANOTHER ONE HERE)
State Duma- Lower House of the Federal Assembly of Russia now elected by proportional representation, which has the constitutional right to originate most legislation. WHY IMPORTANT: 1) Can override presidential vetos, which is rare but did happen under Yeltsin. 2) It can override Federal Council objections, which has occurred several times. 3) Political parties and politicians compete hard to win seats, which gives them opportunities to lobby the bureaucracy for their own interests. 4) Under Putin the Duma has strong support for the President, occasionally asking for small concessions for support but on the whole acting as a rubber stamp to his desires. (Remington p.69)
Beslan tragedy- 1-3 Sept. 2004. Three day hostage situation that ended in 334 civilian deaths (including many children) when 30+ terrorists (related to the Second Chechen War) took over a secondary school in Beslan and were met by Russian security forces in a bloody shootout. WHY IMPORTANT: Putin seized on this event and was able to greatly centralize government in Russia by a) installing governors through the President and b)changing Duma elections to all national party-list proportional representation. These changes further suppressed independent sources of political initiative, making the President stronger and less beholden to the regions, like Yeltsin. (Remington p.71)
Mikhail Khodorkovsky- formerly a wealthy oil oligarch who owned the company Yukos. WHY IMPORTANT: Putin had him arrested in 2003 for tax evasion and fraud, which was a strong move to assert the power of the Kremlin over the oligarchs. Also, it had been rumored that Khodorkovsky was going to make a run for the presidency in 2004 or 2008, which was stopped by Putin's action. After the 'Yukos affair' the last of Yeltsin's 'family' left the Kremlin. (After Putin's Russia)
Vladimir Zhirinovsky/Liberal Democratic Party- led the Liberal Democratic Party who won 24% of the vote in the 1993 parliament elections and vice-chair of the State Duma. WHY IMPORTANT: His party is a radical nationalist party that is quasi-fascist, anti-semitic, and violent; an embarrassment to Russia.
glasnost (this test?)- Gorbachev's reform for greater openness between the government leaders and the people. WHY IMPORTANT- This measure of openness, once implemented, was impossible to return from. It allowed, amongst other things, for the government to be criticized from the press. It drove the publics desire for more 'openness'. (perhaps could be cleaned up a bit)
perestroika (this test?)- Gorbachev's economic and state restructuring that would attempt to modernize the Soviet Union while keeping it intact. WHY IMPORTANT: The dominate policy under Gorbachev, which weakened the communist party and contributed to the fall of the USSR (even though it was meant to maintain it).
Democratic Russia- The name of a coalition of democratic reformers who sought election in March 1990. WHY IMPORTANT: Democratic Russia succeeded in winning a majority of seats in Moscow and Leningrad (St. Petersburg) and 40% of newly elected deputies were adherents. (Remington p.51) (need more?)
Anatoli Serdiukov- Civilian tax minister who Putin appointed to defense minister to help combat corruption within the ministry of defense. WHY IMPORTANT: He helped take down Khodorkovsky and purged the officer corps to streamline and save money. (After Putin p.269-270)
Polpred- Oversaw one of the 7 new Federal districts established by Putin. WHY IMPORTANT: An intermediary to ensure regional compliance with federal law and to help cut back on regional cities' power. (After Putin, Ch. 3)
Articles 70-73 (of 1993 Constitution): defined the regionalism within the Constitution. WHY IMPORTANT: These established spheres of control, some solely federal and some jointly federal and regional. (After Putin, Ch. 3)
Egor Gaidar-(R. p. 59) Deputy prime minister of Yeltsin. WHY IMPORTANT: Gaidar was put in charge of the economic transformation reforms under Yeltsin. He was blocked from becoming prime minister from the Russian Congress of People's Deputies and the Supreme Soviet. (ADD MORE IF YOU HAVE IT)
500 Days program- Yeltsin 1990 economic strategy in which the central government relinquished many of its administrative controls over the economy, allowing price fluctuate, a massive government effort to privatize state assets and create a broad base of property owners, and allow republics to claim sovereign control over the assets on their territories. WHY IMPORTANT: It effectively made sure that communism could not return and removed the central government's real controls over the economy, helping Yeltsin further his power. The central gov. and Gorbachev were predictably against the program.
Chechnya/Chechnia- The Chechen Republic declared independence in 1991, the federal government intervened with massive force in 1994 and again in 1999. WHY IMPORTANT: 1) Has been the sole case where the federal government has had to resort to force to preserve the unity of the state. 2) Has been a problem for Russia internationally because of the human rights problems it has caused during the two wars. 3) The clash of Muslim and Christians is played out in this poverty stricken land.
superpresidential- system that is heavily based on a strong presidential office, such as in Russia. WHY IMPORTANT: Once elected the president can dominate the government and put pressure on the courts, the governors, the mass media, and business leaders to support his policies. The fate of the country is based on his wisdom and ability to push the huge bureaucracy into submission.
'government'- senior echelon of leadership in the executive branch that formulates the main lines of policy, much like the cabinet in the West. WHY IMPORTANT: The harmony between the president and his government dictates to a large degree the success of his policies in being fully implemented.
Artice 10 of Constitution- separation of branches (executive, legislative, judicial) and their powers on paper. WHY IMPORTANT: This gave legal bounds and separation to the branches, however, in reality the president can easily overstep his limits while still technically observing the documents limits.
19 April 1991- Gorbachev is prevented from transferring through treaty a good deal of power to the regions by his own vice president, prime minister, defense minister, the KGB Chief, and other senior officials who form the 'State on the State Emergency'. Gorbachev is put on house arrest and they attempt to restore power to the Soviet regime. WHY IMPORTANT: Public support and Yeltsin cause the coup to fail, but Gorbachev's power is fatally compromised. This is an important event towards the fall of the Soviet Union. (Remington, p.53)
March 1991 referendum- Gorbachev referendum that asked the USSR if it would like to preserve it's Union. Yeltsin added a question to the Russian version of the ballot that asked if the Russian Republic should institute a president. Both questions passed by wide margins. WHY IS IT IMPORTANT: This added credibility for Yeltsin's presidency and undercut Gorbachev's power within Russia. (Remington, p.51)
pravovoe gosudarstvo- (R. p.48) 'Law-governed state', a state that obeyed the rule of law, which was a goal of Gorbachev. WHY IMPORTANT: Having a state that adheres to the rule of law is a paradigm shift over using the law as a tool of the state, as the Soviets did.
6 November 1991- President Yeltsin issues a degree outlawing the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. WHY IMPORTANT: This halted formal communist party activity in Russia and further removed the possibility of a return to the a communist state. (Remington, p. 53)
9 December 1991- The leaders of the Russian, Ukrainian, and Belorussian Republics met to issue a declaration that the Soviet Union was dissolved and replaced by the Commonwealth of Independent States. WHY IMPORTANT: This (or Dec 25) effectively ended the Soviet Union and setup the post-Soviet structure of the Commonwealth of Independent States. This effectively took away a state for Gorbachev to be president of.
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS): A loose structure of 11 former soviet Republics built with bilateral agreements between Moscow and the republics under Yeltsin. WHY IMPORTANT: Allowed Russia (Yeltsin) to continue to assert its influence over much of the former USSR.
*25 December 1991- Gorbachev formally resigns as president of the USSR. WHY IMPORTANT: On this day the USSR is officially dead and all of Gorbachev's powers for Russia are invested in Boris Yeltsin.
April 1993 referendum- This Yeltsin referendum asked Russians their level of support for Yeltsin and his policies and the need for early presidential and parliamentary elections. WHY IMPORTANT: This referendum showed support for Yeltsin and his policies while showing support for early elections of the parliament. This gave some legitimacy to the otherwise unconstitutional action of Yeltsin dissolving parliament.
21 September 1993- Yeltsin dissolves the legislature (Congress of the People's Deputies and its Supreme Soviet) which the constitution did not allow at that point, but Yeltsin claimed legitimacy from the April 1993 referendum. The legislature then impeached Yeltsin and proclaimed Alexander Rutskoi (vice-president) the new president. WHY IMPORTANT: This began the 1993 Constitutional Crisis which ended with a Yeltsin victory and allowed him to reorganize the government and eventually pass a new constitution.
3,4 October 1993- Crowds remove barriers around the parliament and move into the mayor's office. The army which had been neutral stormed the Soviet Supreme building early on 4 October. Tanks shot at the White House later that day. A ten-day conflict ensued and many were killed. WHY IMPORTANT: This effectively ended the 1993 Constitutional Crisis between Yeltsin and the Duma, and allowed Yeltsin wide powers, which he used to, among other things, push through a new constitution later that year.
1993 Constitutional Crisis-(see Sept. 21 and Oct. 3-4, also) A period that begun with Yeltsin's attempt to dissolve the legislature, to which the legislature retaliated by proclaiming a new president (which did not hold), and ended with Yeltsin using the army against the legislature on October 4; Yeltsin won the political standoff. WHY IMPORTANT: After this victory, Yeltsin was able to issue many presidential decrees that consolidated and asserted his power. He also used his power to push through a new constitution on December 12.
1993 Russian Constitution- In the wake of the wake of the 1993 Constitutional Crisis, the 12 Dec 1993 Constitutional referendum passed with 59% of the vote. The new constitution setup a dominate president, who appoints a prime minister and cabinet ministers, with the confidence of the parliament. The president has the power to make decrees that have the force of law (but are subordinate to the legislature's laws) and can dissolve parliament, under certain constitutional restraints. WHY IMPORTANT: This setup the current governmental system of Russia with a strong president with some paper checks and balances.
federal districts- areas that have a special presidential representatives whose task is to monitor the laws and actions of the governments of a set of regions. WHY IMPORTANT: Putin used federal districts to strengthen central control over the activity of federal bodies in the regions, which had fallen under the de facto power of governors in the past. (Remington, p.81)
13 May 2000- date of Putin's decree that created seven new federal districts (see above).
Alexander Solzhenitsyn (this test?)- dissent and author of GULAG Archipelago during Stalin era. WHY IMPORTANT: His readings were required under Putin in history classes.
social capital- Term meaning the network of ties that keep people engaged in various kinds of cooperative endeavors. WHY IMPORTANT: Important factor in having responsive and honest government, which the Russian seem to be lacking in. (Remington, p.91)
'Dual Russia'- While people vote in high percentages their involvement in other forms of political activity is low. WHY IMPORTANT: Many Russians feel as though their attempts to influence the government are futile, which hurts the quality of the democracy and government. (Remington, p.92)
oligarchy/oligarchs- This group of businessmen owned the newly privatized industries in Russia, which gave this small group extreme wealth, which they used to influence government until Putin. WHY IMPORTANT: Putin effectively dismantled the former power of this group, largely from his action against Mikhail Khodorkovsky, the Yukos oil oligarch, which destroyed the oligarchs' ability to stop Putin's legislative agenda. (After Putin, Oligarchy)
Boris Yeltsin- Russia's first president and the architect of its breakaway from the USSR. He is considered a political genius, but used this to stay in power, not simply for the betterment of Russia. WHY IMPORTANT: Yeltsin 1) created strong regions and a weaker central gov through his dealings the regions, 2) he passed a new constitution in 1993 after a physical battle and crisis over the issue, and 3) economic 'shock therapy' amongst other contributions.
Vladimir Guisnsky- media oligarch whose news sources were independent from Moscow, including harsh (puppet) political satire. WHY IMPORTANT: Putin took over Guisnsky's television station and forced him into exile. He is an example of Putin's ability to remove those that cause him political harm.
'shock therapy' economics- Yeltsin economic policy in 1992 that lifted price constraints while also reducing state spending and increasing taxes, in an attempt to stabilize the economy. WHY IMPORTANT: This economic approach left many Russians selling their goods on the street, while increasing inflation to the point of hyperinflation. The value of Russians savings plummeted with this hyperinflation. A credit crunch shut down industries and led to a protracted depression. (R. p.21, 59)
Alexander Rutskoi- Yeltsin's vice president. Denounced Yeltsin's shock therapy economic plan as 'economic genocide.' WHY IMPORTANT: Rutskoi helped the unsuccessful rebellion against Yeltsin in 1993. He was briefly named president of Russia during the crisis by the parliament. (Remington p.59)
Russian Congress of People's Deputies (R. p.59)- Top legislative body between March 1990 and the Constitutional Crisis of 1993. WHY IMPORTANT: They lost the power struggle with Yeltsin when he sieged the White House on 4 October 1993.
Ministry for Internal Affairs (MVD)- post-KGB: manages both regular uniformed police and militarized security forces that carry out riot control and other functions. WHY IMPORTANT: Putin appointed new heads to most of the regional MVDs, to centralize state power further.
Federal Security Service (FSB)- main domestic security agency of the Russian Federation and most important successor of the KGB domestically. The FSB is involved in counter-intelligence, internal and border security, counter-terrorism, and surveillance. WHY IMPORTANT: Putin used the FSB widely, including in Chechnya, to execute his will.
legal nihilism- the tendency to view laws as a nuisance to be got around rather than a binding constraint on behavior. WHY IMPORTANT: prevalent view in Russia that lessens the legitimacy of the courts and lessens the rule of law.
'Telephone justice'- especially under Soviet era, the state dictates to a judge how to rule or sentence. WHY IMPORTANT: Still port of the judicial mentality, which gives preference to the state's case over defendants.
Procurator General- directs the nation's procuracy in the legal system. WHY IMPORTANT: a position of legal sensitivity. Under Yeltsin the position was independent and sometimes acted against Yeltsin. Under Putin the position has fallen in line with the president.
Federation Council- Upper House of the Federal Assembly of Russia made up 2 members from every unit of the federation. It approves presidential high court nominees, legislates taxes, budget, treaties, and declarations of war. WHY IMPORTANT- The Federation Council was at odds occasionally with Yeltsin, but Putin changed the way the were elected (one from the region's chief executive and one from the region's legislature). Now the Council is politically controlled by the Kremlin. (Remington p.71) (COULD USE ANOTHER ONE HERE)
State Duma- Lower House of the Federal Assembly of Russia now elected by proportional representation, which has the constitutional right to originate most legislation. WHY IMPORTANT: 1) Can override presidential vetos, which is rare but did happen under Yeltsin. 2) It can override Federal Council objections, which has occurred several times. 3) Political parties and politicians compete hard to win seats, which gives them opportunities to lobby the bureaucracy for their own interests. 4) Under Putin the Duma has strong support for the President, occasionally asking for small concessions for support but on the whole acting as a rubber stamp to his desires. (Remington p.69)
Beslan tragedy- 1-3 Sept. 2004. Three day hostage situation that ended in 334 civilian deaths (including many children) when 30+ terrorists (related to the Second Chechen War) took over a secondary school in Beslan and were met by Russian security forces in a bloody shootout. WHY IMPORTANT: Putin seized on this event and was able to greatly centralize government in Russia by a) installing governors through the President and b)changing Duma elections to all national party-list proportional representation. These changes further suppressed independent sources of political initiative, making the President stronger and less beholden to the regions, like Yeltsin. (Remington p.71)
Mikhail Khodorkovsky- formerly a wealthy oil oligarch who owned the company Yukos. WHY IMPORTANT: Putin had him arrested in 2003 for tax evasion and fraud, which was a strong move to assert the power of the Kremlin over the oligarchs. Also, it had been rumored that Khodorkovsky was going to make a run for the presidency in 2004 or 2008, which was stopped by Putin's action. After the 'Yukos affair' the last of Yeltsin's 'family' left the Kremlin. (After Putin's Russia)
Vladimir Zhirinovsky/Liberal Democratic Party- led the Liberal Democratic Party who won 24% of the vote in the 1993 parliament elections and vice-chair of the State Duma. WHY IMPORTANT: His party is a radical nationalist party that is quasi-fascist, anti-semitic, and violent; an embarrassment to Russia.
glasnost (this test?)- Gorbachev's reform for greater openness between the government leaders and the people. WHY IMPORTANT- This measure of openness, once implemented, was impossible to return from. It allowed, amongst other things, for the government to be criticized from the press. It drove the publics desire for more 'openness'. (perhaps could be cleaned up a bit)
perestroika (this test?)- Gorbachev's economic and state restructuring that would attempt to modernize the Soviet Union while keeping it intact. WHY IMPORTANT: The dominate policy under Gorbachev, which weakened the communist party and contributed to the fall of the USSR (even though it was meant to maintain it).
Democratic Russia- The name of a coalition of democratic reformers who sought election in March 1990. WHY IMPORTANT: Democratic Russia succeeded in winning a majority of seats in Moscow and Leningrad (St. Petersburg) and 40% of newly elected deputies were adherents. (Remington p.51) (need more?)
Anatoli Serdiukov- Civilian tax minister who Putin appointed to defense minister to help combat corruption within the ministry of defense. WHY IMPORTANT: He helped take down Khodorkovsky and purged the officer corps to streamline and save money. (After Putin p.269-270)
Polpred- Oversaw one of the 7 new Federal districts established by Putin. WHY IMPORTANT: An intermediary to ensure regional compliance with federal law and to help cut back on regional cities' power. (After Putin, Ch. 3)
Articles 70-73 (of 1993 Constitution): defined the regionalism within the Constitution. WHY IMPORTANT: These established spheres of control, some solely federal and some jointly federal and regional. (After Putin, Ch. 3)
Egor Gaidar-(R. p. 59) Deputy prime minister of Yeltsin. WHY IMPORTANT: Gaidar was put in charge of the economic transformation reforms under Yeltsin. He was blocked from becoming prime minister from the Russian Congress of People's Deputies and the Supreme Soviet. (ADD MORE IF YOU HAVE IT)
500 Days program- Yeltsin 1990 economic strategy in which the central government relinquished many of its administrative controls over the economy, allowing price fluctuate, a massive government effort to privatize state assets and create a broad base of property owners, and allow republics to claim sovereign control over the assets on their territories. WHY IMPORTANT: It effectively made sure that communism could not return and removed the central government's real controls over the economy, helping Yeltsin further his power. The central gov. and Gorbachev were predictably against the program.
Chechnya/Chechnia- The Chechen Republic declared independence in 1991, the federal government intervened with massive force in 1994 and again in 1999. WHY IMPORTANT: 1) Has been the sole case where the federal government has had to resort to force to preserve the unity of the state. 2) Has been a problem for Russia internationally because of the human rights problems it has caused during the two wars. 3) The clash of Muslim and Christians is played out in this poverty stricken land.
superpresidential- system that is heavily based on a strong presidential office, such as in Russia. WHY IMPORTANT: Once elected the president can dominate the government and put pressure on the courts, the governors, the mass media, and business leaders to support his policies. The fate of the country is based on his wisdom and ability to push the huge bureaucracy into submission.
'government'- senior echelon of leadership in the executive branch that formulates the main lines of policy, much like the cabinet in the West. WHY IMPORTANT: The harmony between the president and his government dictates to a large degree the success of his policies in being fully implemented.
Artice 10 of Constitution- separation of branches (executive, legislative, judicial) and their powers on paper. WHY IMPORTANT: This gave legal bounds and separation to the branches, however, in reality the president can easily overstep his limits while still technically observing the documents limits.
19 April 1991- Gorbachev is prevented from transferring through treaty a good deal of power to the regions by his own vice president, prime minister, defense minister, the KGB Chief, and other senior officials who form the 'State on the State Emergency'. Gorbachev is put on house arrest and they attempt to restore power to the Soviet regime. WHY IMPORTANT: Public support and Yeltsin cause the coup to fail, but Gorbachev's power is fatally compromised. This is an important event towards the fall of the Soviet Union. (Remington, p.53)
March 1991 referendum- Gorbachev referendum that asked the USSR if it would like to preserve it's Union. Yeltsin added a question to the Russian version of the ballot that asked if the Russian Republic should institute a president. Both questions passed by wide margins. WHY IS IT IMPORTANT: This added credibility for Yeltsin's presidency and undercut Gorbachev's power within Russia. (Remington, p.51)
pravovoe gosudarstvo- (R. p.48) 'Law-governed state', a state that obeyed the rule of law, which was a goal of Gorbachev. WHY IMPORTANT: Having a state that adheres to the rule of law is a paradigm shift over using the law as a tool of the state, as the Soviets did.
6 November 1991- President Yeltsin issues a degree outlawing the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. WHY IMPORTANT: This halted formal communist party activity in Russia and further removed the possibility of a return to the a communist state. (Remington, p. 53)
9 December 1991- The leaders of the Russian, Ukrainian, and Belorussian Republics met to issue a declaration that the Soviet Union was dissolved and replaced by the Commonwealth of Independent States. WHY IMPORTANT: This (or Dec 25) effectively ended the Soviet Union and setup the post-Soviet structure of the Commonwealth of Independent States. This effectively took away a state for Gorbachev to be president of.
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS): A loose structure of 11 former soviet Republics built with bilateral agreements between Moscow and the republics under Yeltsin. WHY IMPORTANT: Allowed Russia (Yeltsin) to continue to assert its influence over much of the former USSR.
*25 December 1991- Gorbachev formally resigns as president of the USSR. WHY IMPORTANT: On this day the USSR is officially dead and all of Gorbachev's powers for Russia are invested in Boris Yeltsin.
April 1993 referendum- This Yeltsin referendum asked Russians their level of support for Yeltsin and his policies and the need for early presidential and parliamentary elections. WHY IMPORTANT: This referendum showed support for Yeltsin and his policies while showing support for early elections of the parliament. This gave some legitimacy to the otherwise unconstitutional action of Yeltsin dissolving parliament.
21 September 1993- Yeltsin dissolves the legislature (Congress of the People's Deputies and its Supreme Soviet) which the constitution did not allow at that point, but Yeltsin claimed legitimacy from the April 1993 referendum. The legislature then impeached Yeltsin and proclaimed Alexander Rutskoi (vice-president) the new president. WHY IMPORTANT: This began the 1993 Constitutional Crisis which ended with a Yeltsin victory and allowed him to reorganize the government and eventually pass a new constitution.
3,4 October 1993- Crowds remove barriers around the parliament and move into the mayor's office. The army which had been neutral stormed the Soviet Supreme building early on 4 October. Tanks shot at the White House later that day. A ten-day conflict ensued and many were killed. WHY IMPORTANT: This effectively ended the 1993 Constitutional Crisis between Yeltsin and the Duma, and allowed Yeltsin wide powers, which he used to, among other things, push through a new constitution later that year.
1993 Constitutional Crisis-(see Sept. 21 and Oct. 3-4, also) A period that begun with Yeltsin's attempt to dissolve the legislature, to which the legislature retaliated by proclaiming a new president (which did not hold), and ended with Yeltsin using the army against the legislature on October 4; Yeltsin won the political standoff. WHY IMPORTANT: After this victory, Yeltsin was able to issue many presidential decrees that consolidated and asserted his power. He also used his power to push through a new constitution on December 12.
1993 Russian Constitution- In the wake of the wake of the 1993 Constitutional Crisis, the 12 Dec 1993 Constitutional referendum passed with 59% of the vote. The new constitution setup a dominate president, who appoints a prime minister and cabinet ministers, with the confidence of the parliament. The president has the power to make decrees that have the force of law (but are subordinate to the legislature's laws) and can dissolve parliament, under certain constitutional restraints. WHY IMPORTANT: This setup the current governmental system of Russia with a strong president with some paper checks and balances.
federal districts- areas that have a special presidential representatives whose task is to monitor the laws and actions of the governments of a set of regions. WHY IMPORTANT: Putin used federal districts to strengthen central control over the activity of federal bodies in the regions, which had fallen under the de facto power of governors in the past. (Remington, p.81)
13 May 2000- date of Putin's decree that created seven new federal districts (see above).
Alexander Solzhenitsyn (this test?)- dissent and author of GULAG Archipelago during Stalin era. WHY IMPORTANT: His readings were required under Putin in history classes.
social capital- Term meaning the network of ties that keep people engaged in various kinds of cooperative endeavors. WHY IMPORTANT: Important factor in having responsive and honest government, which the Russian seem to be lacking in. (Remington, p.91)
'Dual Russia'- While people vote in high percentages their involvement in other forms of political activity is low. WHY IMPORTANT: Many Russians feel as though their attempts to influence the government are futile, which hurts the quality of the democracy and government. (Remington, p.92)
oligarchy/oligarchs- This group of businessmen owned the newly privatized industries in Russia, which gave this small group extreme wealth, which they used to influence government until Putin. WHY IMPORTANT: Putin effectively dismantled the former power of this group, largely from his action against Mikhail Khodorkovsky, the Yukos oil oligarch, which destroyed the oligarchs' ability to stop Putin's legislative agenda. (After Putin, Oligarchy)
Boris Yeltsin- Russia's first president and the architect of its breakaway from the USSR. He is considered a political genius, but used this to stay in power, not simply for the betterment of Russia. WHY IMPORTANT: Yeltsin 1) created strong regions and a weaker central gov through his dealings the regions, 2) he passed a new constitution in 1993 after a physical battle and crisis over the issue, and 3) economic 'shock therapy' amongst other contributions.
Vladimir Guisnsky- media oligarch whose news sources were independent from Moscow, including harsh (puppet) political satire. WHY IMPORTANT: Putin took over Guisnsky's television station and forced him into exile. He is an example of Putin's ability to remove those that cause him political harm.
'shock therapy' economics- Yeltsin economic policy in 1992 that lifted price constraints while also reducing state spending and increasing taxes, in an attempt to stabilize the economy. WHY IMPORTANT: This economic approach left many Russians selling their goods on the street, while increasing inflation to the point of hyperinflation. The value of Russians savings plummeted with this hyperinflation. A credit crunch shut down industries and led to a protracted depression. (R. p.21, 59)
Alexander Rutskoi- Yeltsin's vice president. Denounced Yeltsin's shock therapy economic plan as 'economic genocide.' WHY IMPORTANT: Rutskoi helped the unsuccessful rebellion against Yeltsin in 1993. He was briefly named president of Russia during the crisis by the parliament. (Remington p.59)
Russian Congress of People's Deputies (R. p.59)- Top legislative body between March 1990 and the Constitutional Crisis of 1993. WHY IMPORTANT: They lost the power struggle with Yeltsin when he sieged the White House on 4 October 1993.
Ministry for Internal Affairs (MVD)- post-KGB: manages both regular uniformed police and militarized security forces that carry out riot control and other functions. WHY IMPORTANT: Putin appointed new heads to most of the regional MVDs, to centralize state power further.
Federal Security Service (FSB)- main domestic security agency of the Russian Federation and most important successor of the KGB domestically. The FSB is involved in counter-intelligence, internal and border security, counter-terrorism, and surveillance. WHY IMPORTANT: Putin used the FSB widely, including in Chechnya, to execute his will.
legal nihilism- the tendency to view laws as a nuisance to be got around rather than a binding constraint on behavior. WHY IMPORTANT: prevalent view in Russia that lessens the legitimacy of the courts and lessens the rule of law.
'Telephone justice'- especially under Soviet era, the state dictates to a judge how to rule or sentence. WHY IMPORTANT: Still port of the judicial mentality, which gives preference to the state's case over defendants.
Procurator General- directs the nation's procuracy in the legal system. WHY IMPORTANT: a position of legal sensitivity. Under Yeltsin the position was independent and sometimes acted against Yeltsin. Under Putin the position has fallen in line with the president.
Boris Berezovsky- a Russian media oligarch who got rich during liberalization/privatization. Significance Became a member of Yeltsin’s inner circle- turned the country’s main TV channel into a propaganda box for Yeltsin in the 1996 campaign. Putin drover Boris into exile and took over the TV stations
White House- the Russian Parliament building. Significance: this is where Yeltsin grabbed control from Gorbi by standing on the tanks and making his speech. In 1993, Yeltsin had tanks fire on the building to try and end the coup attempt against him.
power vertical- centralized power. Significance: Putin instituted a number of reforms that aimed at reestablishing state control.
Voucher program-1992, every citizen of Russia would be issued a voucher with a face value of R10,000 to acquire shares of stock. Significance: Intended to ensure that everyone became a property owner instantly but ownership wound up mostly in the hands of managers
Shadow economy: the economy that is off the grid, unknown to and unregulated by the government. Significance: the shadow economy grew greatly under Yeltsin’s economic reforms and the lack of legitimate business dealings removed tax profits from the government.
Ruslan Khasbulatov: a once ally of Yeltsin’s who later was a major factor in the 1993 constitutional crisis coup that tried to overthrow Yeltsin.
IDs
Procuracy-Russian legal position that both prosecutes crimes and supervises justice. WHY IMPORTANT: Shows a state bias in the legal system; justice is determined by those who prosecute the crime.
Constitutional Court- 19 judge court with the power of judicial review over the Duma and the President. WHY IMPORTANT: 1) It gave more power to the judicial branch, making it closer to an equal branch. 2) It sided with the Duma against Yeltsin when it ruled his actions were illegal. 3) It increased the constitutional legitimacy of legislative and executive acts by judging their constitutionality.
Arbitrazh courts- hear economic disputes between firm & firm, state & firm, and bankruptcy. WHY IMPORTANT: The use of these courts, which is rising, helps Russia better deal with its transition to a market economy.
Courts of general jurisdiction- 1) These courts hear the most cases, 16 million in 2007 and 2) are responsible for all criminal and civil cases that affect an individual. WHY IMPORTANT: The rise in number of cases shows an increase in Russians willingness to use the legal system to resolve disputes.
Justice of the Peace courts- Established by Putin, these are the lowest courts in Russia which deal with simple legal matters and hear a large volume of cases. WHY IMPORTANT: 1) The JP courts have relieved higher courts of a large number of routine cases that had been straining the legal system. 2) The less formal courts allow average Russians easier access to the law.
European Court of Human Rights- Monitors human rights abuses by the members of the European Council, which Russia is a member of. WHY IMPORTANT: 1) Russia accounts for most of the petitions to this court. 2) Russia's human rights actions, especially in Chechnya, are checked by this international court, which Putin mandates compliance with. 3) The rulings of the court can be embarrassing for Russia, who loses some cases, and there has been a problem of local enforcement, but Putin insists on enforcement.
Advokat-Russian lawyer. WHY IMPORTANT: Under Putin's Criminal Procedure Code, this position has more formal qualifications including passing a qualifications commission (which acts like a bar) and has become more professional, receiving attorney-client privileges.
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Rule of law- power is dispersed among many groups, non of which has a monopoly over access to the law. The law defends rights and is respected by government, not used as a tool of the state, like under the Soviet system. WHY IMPORTANT: If Russia had a rule of law society, like Gorbachev wanted, there would be less corruption and a greater justice in the legal system.
Rule by law- a powerful elite concentrating political power uses law to protect itself and wields the law at its prerogative. WHY IMPORTANT: Russia has a history of being closer to a rule by law than a rule of law society, and currently this using the law a tool of the state is still alive.
Constitutional Court- 19 judge court with the power of judicial review over the Duma and the President. WHY IMPORTANT: 1) It gave more power to the judicial branch, making it closer to an equal branch. 2) It sided with the Duma against Yeltsin when it ruled his actions were illegal. 3) It increased the constitutional legitimacy of legislative and executive acts by judging their constitutionality.
Arbitrazh courts- hear economic disputes between firm & firm, state & firm, and bankruptcy. WHY IMPORTANT: The use of these courts, which is rising, helps Russia better deal with its transition to a market economy.
Courts of general jurisdiction- 1) These courts hear the most cases, 16 million in 2007 and 2) are responsible for all criminal and civil cases that affect an individual. WHY IMPORTANT: The rise in number of cases shows an increase in Russians willingness to use the legal system to resolve disputes.
Justice of the Peace courts- Established by Putin, these are the lowest courts in Russia which deal with simple legal matters and hear a large volume of cases. WHY IMPORTANT: 1) The JP courts have relieved higher courts of a large number of routine cases that had been straining the legal system. 2) The less formal courts allow average Russians easier access to the law.
European Court of Human Rights- Monitors human rights abuses by the members of the European Council, which Russia is a member of. WHY IMPORTANT: 1) Russia accounts for most of the petitions to this court. 2) Russia's human rights actions, especially in Chechnya, are checked by this international court, which Putin mandates compliance with. 3) The rulings of the court can be embarrassing for Russia, who loses some cases, and there has been a problem of local enforcement, but Putin insists on enforcement.
Advokat-Russian lawyer. WHY IMPORTANT: Under Putin's Criminal Procedure Code, this position has more formal qualifications including passing a qualifications commission (which acts like a bar) and has become more professional, receiving attorney-client privileges.
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Rule of law- power is dispersed among many groups, non of which has a monopoly over access to the law. The law defends rights and is respected by government, not used as a tool of the state, like under the Soviet system. WHY IMPORTANT: If Russia had a rule of law society, like Gorbachev wanted, there would be less corruption and a greater justice in the legal system.
Rule by law- a powerful elite concentrating political power uses law to protect itself and wields the law at its prerogative. WHY IMPORTANT: Russia has a history of being closer to a rule by law than a rule of law society, and currently this using the law a tool of the state is still alive.
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